The Ancient Caledonia Forest

 

Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) in the
Ancient Caledonian Forest.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

The forests of Scotland are wreathed in myth and mystery.  The Romans built Hadrian’s Wall to protect Britannia from the wild Picts lurking in trees to the north.  Shakespeare’s Macbeth was certain of his rule until Birnam Wood marched on Dunsinane.   Robert Kirk, a 17^th century Scottish minister and folklorist, wrote of a Secret Commonwealth of elves, fauns and fairies that inhabited the Highland forests. 

Video of the Ancient Caledonian Forest.

Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

One of these Scottish woodlands is the Ancient Caledonian Forest.  It once covered much of Northern Scotland and was called the Great Wood.  The Ancient Caledonian Forest’s signature tree is the Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris).  This tree and other species that populate this forest colonized the Highlands after the last ice age and comprise a unique assemblage of plants and animals.  We were able to hike in the Ancient Caledonia Forest during our recent trip to Scotland.  Here are some of the things we experienced. 

Scots Pine bark. 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Scots Pine needles and immature female cones.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Scots Pine mature female cone. 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Scots Pine is found in the boreal forests of Eurasia and Scotland is the westernmost natural outpost of this tree.  People have transplanted it around the world for timber, pulp wood and as Christmas trees.  Plantation grown Scots Pine has a straight trunk and can reach over 100 feet.  Scots Pines growing in the wild on poor, acidic soil and exposed to the harsh weather of Northern Scotland are often gnarled and twisted.  They are a long-lived species with some surviving for more than 300 years.  As we walked through groves of these great trees we found ourselves speaking in hushed tones as if we were in a cathedral.  

Rowan (Sorbus acucuparia) tree.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Rowan in flower.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Another tree in the Ancient Caledonian Forest is Rowan (Sorbus aucuparia).  This is a small tree with compound leaves and when we saw them in June, they had white flowers that by fall would develop into red fruits.  

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis).
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Common Juniper (Juniperus communis) is a coniferous tree of the forest understory.  It has short, sharp needles and separate male and female trees.  Female trees bear fleshy cones called juniper berries.  The berries are added to gin, contributing to the drink’s distinctive flavor.  

Silver Birch (Betula pendula) leaves.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Silver Birch bark.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Betula pendula or Silver Birch has white papery bark and pendulous triangular leaves.  They were growing among the Scots Pines. 

Lichens.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Lichens.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Lichens are abundant on the ground, on rocks, tree trunks and branches in the forest.  These symbionts consist of a fungus and a photosynthetic alga living as a single organism.  Lichens are extremely sensitive to air pollution and their abundance in the forest was clear indication of good air quality.     

Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum).
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Bog Cotton (Eriophorum angustifolium) fruits.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Smaller plants in the forest include Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum).  This fern has large leaves that turn golden-brown in the fall.  Bog Cotton or Cotton Grass (Eriophorum angustifolium) is a sedge found in northern regions of both the New World and Old.  It makes tufts of white fruits that resemble cotton bolls.  While this plant is not used for textiles, the fruits were once used to make bandages and paper.  

Common Chickweed (Stellaria media).
Bogach, Scotland. 

Common Chickweed’s (Stellaria media) white flowers were in the forest understory.  This is the same chickweed we have growing in our yard and came to us from Eurasia.  It was a treat to see Common Chickweed in its native habitat.  

Black Slug (Arion ater).
Bogach, Scotland. 

There were animals too, both large and small.  We found several Black Slugs (Arion ater) in the forest.  These impressively large gastropods can reach six inches in length and are shiny black.  Black Slugs are hermaphrodites with both male and female genitals.  They consume dead plant material, mushrooms, carrion and decomposing plant material.  Authorities claim Black Slugs are edible but taste horrible.  Echoing the adage that everything is edible, once.  

Common Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs).
Bogach, Scotland. 

Common Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus).
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Birds were abundant in the forest.  Some of the birds we found were Eurasian Chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) and the plump Common Wood Pigeons (Columba palumbus). 

Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata). 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Spotted Flycatcher on nest. 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Willow Warbler (Psylloscopus trochilus). 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos).
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

A Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa striata) was tending its nest and Willow Warblers (Psylloscopus trochilus) sang from the trees. Common Sandpipers (Actitis hypoleucos) perched along the shore of the loch and probably had a nest nearby.   

Mistle Thrush (Turdus viscivorus). 
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

We found a Mistle Thrush (Turdus viscivorus) feeding in a clearing.  This large thrush looks much like our American Robin (Turdus migratorius) in form but is spotted on the breast.  

Red Kite (Milvus milvus).
Arabella, Scotland. 

The most impressive bird we found was the Red Kite (Milvus milvus).  These large raptors feed mostly on carrion but will also take small animals.  They were mercilessly persecuted for hundreds of years and became extinct in Scotland in the 19^th century.  In the 20^th century Red Kites were protected by law and have been reintroduced over much of their former range.  One of the Red Kites we saw had a radio transmitter on its back to monitor its movements and activities.  

Red Deer (Cervus elephus).
Insh Marshes Nature Reserve, Scotland.

Mammals also inhabit the Ancient Caledonian Forest. Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) are native to much of Europe and Western Asia and have been transported around the world as game animals.  We found a young buck browsing in a meadow.  

River Otter (Lutra lutra) with fish.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 
 

River Otter.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

We had the good fortune to see a Eurasian River Otter (Lutra lutra) swimming in a Loch.  This charismatic animal declined in much of Great Britain during the 20^th century due to pollution and habitat loss, but their numbers remained strong in Scotland.  Dave Cullen our guide to the Ancient Caledonian Forest, had been a ranger at this preserve and knew otters were present but he had never seen them.  He was quite excited when we spotted this one.  When a guide is impressed by a sighting you know it is significant.  

Steve and Diane Coggin in the
Ancient Caledonian Forest.
Loch Garten Nature Reserve, Scotland. 

Today the Ancient Caledonian Forest is a shadow of its former self.  It probably reached its greatest extend about 5000 years ago.  Then the climate began to warm and became wetter.  People felled the trees for timber, and created agricultural and grazing land which diminished the forest further.  By the mid-20^th century only about 1% of the forest remained.  Now a movement called rewilding is going on in Scotland.  It seeks to bring back the forest by replanting the native flora and reintroducing keystone animals.  This is an admirable effort to undo some of the damage we have done to the Ancient Caledonian Forest over the millennia.

Whence the flowers?

 

Zebra Swallowtail (Eurytides marcellus) on
West Indian Lantana (Lantana camara).
Rowan County, North Carolina.

High summer is upon us, and the flowering abundance of spring is behind.  But our yard still has some plants in flower.  They bring color to the yard and food for the small creatures that live among us.  Some of these plants are natives but many of the summer bloomers are introduced from somewhere else in the world.  As I was admiring the summer flowers I was inspired to explore the geographic origin of our plants.  

Common Zinnia (Zinnia elegans).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Common Zinnia (Zinnia elegans) comes in many colors and sizes.  It originated in dry tropical regions of Mexico and Central America but is now planted in gardens throughout the world.  A wide variety of insects sip the Zinnia's nectar while gathering pollen.   

Purslane (Portulaca sp.).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Purslane. 
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Purslanes (Portulaca sp.) can be found in both the Old World and the New.  These drought and heat tolerant plants are succulents and the flowers open only on sunny days for a few hours after sunrise. 

Shasta Daisy (Leucanthemum x superbum).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Shasta Daisies (Leucanthemum x superbum) have an interesting history.  It is a hybrid produced by American plant breeder Luther Burbank in the late19^th century.  He crossed, in succession, four different species of daisies from Europe and Asia to make this tall, hardy and prolific plant. 

Purpletop Vervain (Verbena bonairensis).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Verbena bonairensis or Purpletop Vervain is a tall spindly plant that makes clusters of small purple flowers on the tips of the stems. It originated in South America and is now widely grown in gardens.  Purpletop Vervain is a favorite of pollinators including butterflies and bees. 

Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) caterpillar 
on Common Milkweed.
Rowan County, North Carolina.

Two native species of milkweed flower throughout the summer in our yard.  The tall, purple flowered Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and  the short, orange flowered Butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa) attract pollinators and provide food for Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) caterpillars.  

Balsam (Impatiens balsamina).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Balsam (Impatiens balsamina) is an annual with thick, succulent stems. Flowers range in color from white to red.   Balsam makes large fruits that explosively scatter seeds when touched giving rise to another common name, Touch-me-not.  Balsam is favorite of hummingbirds in our yard. 

Scarlet Beebalm (Monarda didyma).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Scarlet Beebalm (Monarda didyma) is a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae) and is native to Eastern North America. It produces abundant red flowers.  As the name Beebalm suggests they are pollenated by bees but they are also attractive to hummingbirds.   

West Indian Lantana with yellow and orange flowers.
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

West Indian Lantana with yellow and purple flowers.
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

West Indian Lantana (Lantana camara) is related to Verbena bonairensis and it also originated in tropical America.  Its abundant flowers and drought tolerance have allowed it to spread around the globe as a garden plant.  Flowers are borne in clusters on the ends of branches. The newest flowers are at the center of the cluster and older flowers to the outside. We have two different colored Lantana flowers in our yard.  One type has flowers that open yellow and turn orange as they mature.  Another starts yellow and turns purple.  With these brilliant flowers West Indian Lantana is a favorite of wide variety of insects. 

St. John's Wort (Hypericum calycinum).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

Hypericum calycinum or St John’s Wort is a small shrub.  Its natural range is Turkey and Southeastern Europe.  St. John’s Wort makes large, yellow, five-petaled flowers with many stamens.  This is another widely planted species and is found in gardens in temperate regions. 

Bottlebrush Buckeye (Aesculus parviflora).
Rowan County, North Carolina.

Bottlebrush Buckeye (Aesculus parviflora) is a small tree native to the Southeastern United States.  It naturally grows in rich woodlands but is widely planted as an ornamental.  Bottlebrush Buckeye flowers in summer and produces a spike of white flowers. 

American Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana).
Rowan County, North Carolina. 

American Beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) flowers in midsummer and its white flowers come in clusters born at the base of the opposite leaves.   In the fall American Beautyberry makes beautiful purple berries that are a favorite food of wildlife.  This handsome shrub is native to the Southeastern United States. 

As I work on this blog the outside temperature on the Piedmont of North Carolina is about 100 degrees.  All the plants, animals and people are stressed by this heat.  We have a number of plants native to this part of North America, but it is striking how many of the flowers are of tropical origin or from dry environments.  I expect plants that tolerate our hotter and dryer environment to be more and more common in our gardens as the climate changes. 

Sea Cliffs of Shetland - Part 2

 

Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus). 
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Shetland is a group of islands north of the mainland of Scotland. We visited these foggy, rainy and windy islands in June and found life teeming around the cliffs that fringe the islands.  The sea cliffs were swarming with birds nesting, resting and raising young.  We were privileged to view the birds closeup, from the water in a small boat and from trails along the cliff tops.  These perspectives gave us an intimate portrait of the seabirds during the crucial nesting season. 

In the last post of this blog, I described Atlantic Puffins, Common Murres, Razorbills and gulls on the cliffs.  Despite this impressive list there were still more birds on the sea cliffs of Shetland.

Northern Gannet.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Gannets on cliff.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Gannets mating.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Gannets on nests.
 Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Video of Northern Gannets plunging for food.

Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

One of the largest and most abundant of these birds was the Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus).  With a six-foot wingspan, white body with black wingtips, a head tinged with gold, a dagger-like beak and striking blue eyes, the Northern Gannets wheeled about the cliffs, plunging headfirst into the water to catch fish.  Northern Gannets nest in colonies that can have tens of thousands of birds.  The nests were loose cups made of seaweed, land plants and even debris like scraps of fishing net and rope.  

Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis). 
Sumburgh Head, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Fulmar.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Fulmar.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Fulmar.
Sumburgh Head, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Fulmars.  Adult feeding young.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Northern Fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) look similar to gulls but they are Tubenoses (Order Procellariiformes) and more closely related to albatrosses.  Northern Fulmars are gray on the upper wings and back with a white head and belly.  The tube that gives the Order its name is on top of the beak and contains a salt gland that allows these birds to drink seawater.  Northern Fulmars glide just above the sea surface on stiff wings and take small animals from the surface or dive for food.  

Great Skua (Stercorarius skua).
Fair Isle, Shetland, Scotland.

Great Skua trying to steal a fish from a Great
Black-backed Gull (Larus marinus).
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Great Skua.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Great Skua.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

Great Skuas (Stercorarius skua) are large, dark and aggressive predatory seabirds. With their brown mottled color and heavy black bill, they look downright menacing. Their massive, barrel chest and white wing patches make Great Skuas easy to identify on the wing.  Great Skuas nest in the grasslands above the sea cliffs and catch fish, steal from other birds, take eggs and snatch young birds from their neighbor's nests.  In Scotland Great Skuas are know as Bonxies.   

European Shag (Gulosus aristotelis).
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland.  

European Shags.
Isle of Noss, Shetland, Scotland. 

European Shags (Gulosus aristotelis) are related to our Double-crested Cormorants (Nannopterum auritum).  They are black with a hooked beak and dive from the surface to catch fish.  European Shags nest in small caves and crevices of the sea cliffs. 

Wild Rock Pigeons (Columba livia),
Sumburgh Head, Shetland, Scotland. 

A denizen of the cliffs that is not a sea bird is the familiar Rock Pigeon (Columba livia).  We are accustomed to seeing these birds eating food scraps on the city sidewalks or nesting under interstate highway bridges.  But these are all feral birds whose ancestors escaped from captivity and are now naturalized.  In northern Scotland, Rock Pigeons are wild and have never been domesticated.  It is nice to see these Rock Pigeons living wild in this wild place. 

Cliffs and lighthouse at Sumburgh Head.
Shetland, Scotland. 

The sea cliffs of Shetland look forbidding, even dangerous. In the fog with waves crashing and steep drop offs the cliffs can give people pause.  But to the birds these cliffs are a safe place to make their nests and bring on the next generation.